Female Education in Boarding Schools 

 

 

"A Plan for the Conduct of Female Education in Boarding Schools", Erasmus Darwin. 1797

Section 1: The Female Character

 

The parents and guardians of young ladies of the last half century were less solicitous about procuring for them so extensive an education, as modern refinement requires.  Hence it happens, that female education  has not yet been reduced to a perfect system; but is frequently directed by those, who have not themselves had a good education, or who have not studied the subject with sufficient attention.  And tho’ many ingenious remarks are to be found in the works of Locke, Rousseau, Genlis, and other writers still more modern; yet few of them are exactly applicable to the management of boarding schools; the improvement of which is the intent of the present treatise.

The advantages of a good education consist in uniting health and agility of body with chearfulness and activity of mind; in superadding graceful movements to the former, and agreeable tastes to the latter; and in the acquirement of the rudiments of such arts and sciences, as may amuse ourselves, or gain us the esteem of others; with a strict attention to the culture of morality and religion.

The female character should possess the mild and retiring virtues rather than the bold and dazzling ones; great eminence in almost anything is sometimes injurious to a young lady; whose temper and disposition should appear to be pliant rather than robust; to be ready to take impressions rather than to be decidedly mark’d; as great apparent strength of character, however excellent, is liable to alarm both her own and the other sex; and to create admiration rather than affection.

There are however situations in single life; in which, after the completion of their school-education, ladies may cultivate to any extent the fine arts or the sciences for their amusement or instruction.  And there are situations in a married state; which may call forth all the energies of the mind in the care, education, or provision, for a family; which the inactivity, folly, or death of a husband may render necessary.  Hence if to softess of manners, complacency or countenance, gentle unhurried motion, with a voice clear and yet tender, the charms which enchant all hearts! Can be superadded internal strength and activity of mind, capable to transact the business or combat the evils of life; with a due sense of moral and religious obligation; all is obtain’d, which education can supply; the female character becomes compleat, excites our love, and commands our admiration.

Education should draw the outline, and teach the use of the pencil; but the exertions of the individual must afterwards introduce the various gradations of shade and colour, must illuminate the landscape, and fill it with the beautiful figures of the Graces and the Virtues.

Section II: Musick and Dancing

 

Are generally taught by the masters, who profess those arts; concerning which we shall only observe, that they are frequently believed to be of too great importance in female education; and on that account that too much time is expended on their acquirement. It is perhaps more desirable, that young ladies should play, sing, and dance, only so well as to amuse themselves and their friends, than to practice those arts in so eminent a degree as so astonish the public; because a great apparent attention to trivial accomplishments is liable to give a suspicion, that more valuable acquisitions have been neglected.  And, in they consist in an exhibition of the person, they are liable to be attended with vanity, and to extinguish the blush of youthful timidity; which is in young ladies the most powerful of their exterior charms.

Such matters should be chosen to instruct young ladies in these accomplishments, as are not only well qualified to sing and play, or to dance themselves; but also who can teach with good temper and genteel behavior; they should recollect, that vulgar manners, with the sharp gestures of anger, and its disagreeable tones of voice, are unpardonable in those, who profess to teach graceful motion, and melodious expression; and may affect the taste and temper of their pupils, so as to be more injurious to their education; than any thing, which they are able to teach them, can counterbalance.

Section XXXVIII: Economy

 

A due regard to the prudent expenditure of their money, a proper care of their clothes, and a parsimonious attention to the lapse of time, should be inculcated into the minds of young ladies.  To effect these purposes one efficacious method, where the usual exhortations fail, may be to suffer their imprudence to produce some inconvenience to themselves; which they should be permitted to feel to a proper degree.

Thus a profuse unnecessary expenditure of their pocket money will shortly induce poverty; which should by no means be alleviated by a fresh supply; till the inconvenience produced has effected a conviction of the impropriety of their conduct.  Except when the expenditure has been made for some laudable purpose, and then no time should be lost in restoring the power of repeating it.

The same means may be used in respect to their omission to take care of their clothes; they should find the necessity of repairing them with their own hands, or of foregoing some visiting amusements, till new ones can be procured; and thus the consequent inconvenience may teach them economy, if they are otherwise too inattentive to the usual admonitions on these subjects.

In respect to the economy of time the hours of amusement and of exercise should be regularly counted; and the length of time young ladies employ in dressing should be nicely attended to; as in adult life the hours consumed at the toilet of some ladies is perfectly ridiculous, and detains them from more important duties. Perhaps a stated time might be allow’d the young ladies for adjusting the articles of their dress, that they might acquire a habit of disposing them with neatness, taste, and elegance, and yet with expedition.

Men are generally train’d from their early years to the business or profession, in which they are afterwards to engage; but it most frequently happens to ladies, that tho’ destined to the superintendence of a future family, they receive scarcely any previous instruction; but begin this important office with a profound ignorance of the value of money, and of the proper application of things, which surround them.

Many young ladies destitute of mothers, and without a home, are continued at school to a later age; such should be form’d into a class, and properly instructed in domestic economy; each of them superintending the business of the family, a week or a month by turns; not only providing for the table, and directing the cookery, but they should also be taught other parts of domestic employment, as cutting out linens, and making them up with plain and strong needle-work, either for their own families, or to be given as clothing for necessitious infants or mothers.

Such an addition of domestic knowledge and benevolent industry to ornamental accomplishments would give the school, that procures it, a decided advantage over other schools, which have no such institution.

Section XXXIX: School-Education

 

The advantages of a school-education, where twenty or thirty children are properly instructed, over that in a private family are derived from several sources.  First, it must be observed, that almost all our exertions in early life are owing to our imitation others; in childhood we are most liable to imitate the actions of those, who are somewhat older than ourselves; and in manhood, of those we are in somewhat higher life; whence the general prevalence of fashion in dress and manners.  Now there are more examples to cause this imitative activity in well conducted schools, and the children in consequence become more active in the pursuit of their studies, and in the acquirement of their accomplishments.

It may be added, that not only children, before they have acquired the use of reason, or voluntary deliberation, but that the greatest part of adult mankind learn all the common arts of life by imitating others; and that even dumb creatures seem capable of acquiring knowledge with greater facility by imitating each other, than by any methods, by which we can teach them.  Thus dogs, when they are sick, learn of each other to eat grass as an ametic; and cats to moisten their paws for the purpose of washing their faces.  And the readiest way to instruct all brute animals is by practicing them with others of the same species; which have already learnt the arts, we wish them to acquire, as explain’d in Zoonomia, vol. I, sect. 22. 3.

A second advantage of schools, when well conducted, is, that children often take pleasure in teaching each other, insomuch that at boy’s schools I have often observed, that the lower classes have learnt more from their school-fellows of the higher classes, than even from their masters; which has sometimes arisen from the friendship, or vanity of the elder boy, and sometimes from the solicitation of the lower one; but has in all cases been advantageous to both of them. 

A third superiority of school-education arises from an emulation, which naturally exists, where many pursue the same studies, but which should not be encouraged by rewards or degradations; as it then may degenerate into envy or hatred; but should in general be left intirely to it’s own operation; as mention’d in sect. xxx.

A fourth advantage of school-education is from the children acquiring a kind of practical physiognomy; which renders them more intelligent, and more interesting companions; and is of greater consequence in our passage through life, than almost any single accomplishment, as explain’d in sec. vi. and sect. xxiv. of this work.

Fifthly, where language are learnt by conversation, as is generally practiced in teaching the french language, a school-education properly conducted is much superior to that of a governess in a private family.  And languages are so much easier taught to children by conversation than by the abstract rules of grammar, that Mr. Locke is solicitous to have the latin and greek languages taught by conversation in boys’ schools; and thinks the time of learning words might thus be shorten’d, which new occupies seven or eight years; part of which might be much better employ’d in acquiring the knowledge of things.

The Philosopher, who despising the goods of fortune said, “he was rich, though he carried about with him every thing, which he profess’d,” meant to assert, that strength of mind join’d with strength of body, were superior to any other advantages of life.  A good education furnishes use with this inestimable treasure; it accompanies us at home, travels with us abroad; delights us in fortitude, graces us in society; comforts us in misfortune, guards us in prosperity; contributes to the happiness of others, and ensures our own.

 

 

 

               Notes on the Text

 

John Locke: Although Locke wrote Some Thoughts Concerning Education about boys’ education, it is clear that Darwin is heavily influenced by his ideas, given the numerous references to Locke throughout Darwin’s manual.  Locke believes that that moral education is the most important part of education, and that the purpose of education is to create a virtuous man.  He focuses on reason over passion, which is interesting that Darwin would borrow heavily from Locke’s theories of education, since it was widely assumed during Victorian times that women were less reasonable than men; however, Darwin does seem to admonish women throughout his manual to be virtuous, which is one of Locke’s beliefs.  Locke also stresses the importance of example in education, while downplaying rules, which can be seen in Darwin’s Section XXXIX where he discusses how children “often take pleasure in teaching each other”. 

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Darwin was probably most influenced by Rousseau’s Emile.   Rousseau postulated that children should be best educated through the cultivation of natural goodness in the midst of a corrupt industrialized society.  Thus, he believed that education should help children foster their natural curiosity and intuition.  Since women were thought of a naturally morally good, little emphasis was placed on cultivating reason, a traditional male quality.  Therefore, Darwin borrowed ideas of the purpose of education from Rousseau, as seen in his passage about the natural complacency of women in Section I, and discussed further below.

Madame de Genlis: Genlis used the theories of Rousseau as the basis of her theories of education, but she believed that Rousseau was lacking in his understand of the practical application on education.  Thus, she attempts to rectify this in Adele et Theodore ou letters sur l’education focusing on the education of the female child in particular, using the story of Adelaide.  One of her theories is that education should veer away from Latin and Greek and focus in particular on the acquisition of French, and that this should be done through conversation not rote learning.  This is an idea that Darwin clearly borrows in Section XXXIX where Darwin says that “languages are so much easier taught to children by conversation than by the abstract rules of grammar”.

Zoonomia: This is arguably Darwin’s most well-know work.  In the book he attempts to break down animal life into classes, orders, genera, and species.  By comparing them, he tries to unravel the theory of diseases, and classifies them according to their causes.  The most remarkable part of Darwin’s book is his speculations about evolution, speculations that all warm-blooded animals may have arisen from “one living filament”, a theory that his grandson, Charles Darwin, proved later.  Darwin mentions his book after a digression of how even dumb animals can acquire knowledge through imitation (Section XXXIX).  Thus, it seems as if Darwin is trying to offer scientific support for his educational postulations to give them more credence.

Sect. XXX:  In this section Darwin poses the idea that praise and blame, used in conjunction, may be more useful than publicly degrading students or offering rewards for good behavior.  Darwin continues by expounding on the evils of flattery to the education of a student.  He also brings up the idea in this section that emulation is one of the greatest inducements towards personal motivation.

Sect. VI: This is the section about languages in which Darwin explains how the acquisition of French and Italian is easier and more felicitous than the acquisition of Latin and Greek for women because it is less complicated.

Sect. XXIV: This section talks about how students who are educated in boarding schools are naturally more adept at conversing socially because they are more observant of the reactions and social interactions of others.  In this section Darwin also discusses the importance of women having a pleasing conversation with other members of society.

 

 

 

 

 

                Commentary on the Text

 

 

Educational Trends of the 1700s and 1800s

 

Before beginning an intense examination of Darwin’s motivation for writing such a manual, and looking at his literary influences, it is important to contextualize this document in terms of educational trends of the late 1700s and early 1800s.  This becomes especially poignant given the fact that Darwin begins his introduction mentioning that the “parents and guardians of young ladies of the last half century were less solicitous about procuring for them so extensive an education, as modern refinement requires” (sect. I).  According to Burstyn’s Victorian Education and the Ideal of Womanhood, the economic changes brought about by industrialization afforded the women of the middle class the luxury of not working.  Their leisure, then, became a symbol of the attainment of wealth, as in the lower classes women were forced to still work to maintain their families in a steady income.  Leisured women of the middle class “spent their time organizing the household, overseeing the care of their children, shopping for necessities and luxuries, practicing philanthropy, and nurturing friendships, while their male relatives left home each day to earn money for these activities” (30).  Thus, home came to be known as a sort of haven for men from the stresses of wage-earning life, and women came to be seen as the weaker and purer sex whose duty it was to maintain healthy children and a happy home.

 

 

 

As Burstyn goes on to explain, men became acknowledged as the bread-winners, the ones who had to rely on reason to help the family survive, while women were seen as the gentling influence, the one to maintain the tranquility of house and home.  Women did not have to deal with the stresses of the workplace, so “they were able to preserve the traditional values of society in face of the iron will of industrialism.  From this notion of women’s purity developed the idea that women were men’s superior consciences” (31).    Thus, middle and upper class women came to be associated with moral virtuousness.

 

 

 

Since women of the middle and upper class were leisured, they needed a husband to take care of them financially.  Parents were often dismayed at having to provide for several daughters, and since working meant a decline in status for the woman in question, everything had to be done in order to ensure a suitable marriage (Burstyn 35).  Thus, women of these classes tended to seek an education that focused on accomplishments, such as dancing, playing the piano, and etiquette, rather than on house-hold skills or higher education.  Their goal in education, then, was to attract a marriageable man to take care of them.

 

 

 

Darwin’s view of Education for Women

 

Erasmus Darwin seems to take for granted the ideal image of women while simultaneously trying to modernize education for women.  In Section I, Darwin seems to be carried away by his vision of the ideal woman as he says, “Hence if to softness of manners, complacency or countenance, gentle unhurried motion, with a voice clear and yet tender, the charms which enchant all hearts! Can be superadded internal strength and activity of mind, capable to transact the business or combat the evils of life; with a due sense of moral and religious obligation; all is obtain’d, which education can supply; the female character becomes compleat, excites our love, and commands our admiration”.  Darwin uses such tender language, and even an exclamation mark highlighting the fact that women enchant all hearts, that it seems clear that he believes the traditional notion that women are the moral compass of the home and are full of goodness and purity.

 

 

 

On the other hand, Darwin seems to want to reform slightly the educational opportunities for women.  Although he doesn’t go so far as to believe that women can learn Latin and Greek languages (see Section XXXIX), he believes they should learn only French, the fact that he thinks women capable of learning substantive subjects shows that Darwin was somewhat of a progressive in his time.  Also unlike educational traditionalists, Darwin professes that women need to focus on the learning of dancing and music only to amuse themselves as “they are frequently believed to be of too great importance in female education” (Section II).  Darwin also believes that schools should teach women to learn economy to time, especially in regards to appearance, “as in adult life the hours consumed at the toilet of some ladies is perfectly ridiculous, and detains them from more important duties (Section XXXVIII).  This seems in direct contrast with more traditional educational beliefs that held that women should be educated only to ensure the acquirement of a husband. 

 

 

 

Another way to look at Darwin’s traditional beliefs of women yet modern outlooks on education can best be gauged by looking at the Table of Contents of his manual, for there one can see what subjects he deems important to the education of women.

I.                    The Female Character

II.                  Musick and Dancing

III.                Reading

IV.                Writing

V.                  Grammar

VI.                Languages. Physiognomy

VII.              Arithmetic. Card-Playing

VIII.            Geography

IX.                History

X.                  Natural History

XI.                Rudiments of Taste. Beauty. Grace

XII.              Drawing and Embroidery. Perspective

XIII.            Heathen Mythology

XIV.            Polite Literature. Novels.

XV.              Arts and Sciences

XVI.            Morals

XVII.          Compassion

XVIII.        Veracity

XIX.            Prudence. Justice. Chastity

XX.              Fortitude. Bashfulness

XXI.            Temperance.

XXII.          Religion

XXIII.        Address

XXIV.        Conversation

XXV.          Exercise. Dumb Bells

XXVI.        Air. Bed-Rooms. Fire-Grates

XXVII.      Care of the Shape. Cold Bath

XXVIII.    Dress. Ear-Rings. Powder

XXIX.        Amusements. Chess

XXX.          Punishments. Rewards. Motives

XXXI.        Lisping

XXXII.      Stammering

XXXIII.    Squinting

XXXIV.    Involuntary Motions

XXXV.      Swell’d Fingers, and Kibed Heels

XXXVI.    Beds. Rheumatism

XXXVII.  Diet. New Milk

XXXVIII.                        Economy

XXXIX.    School-Education, Uses of:

XL.               Catalogue of Books.

Apology for the Work

 

 

 

As you can see from Darwin’s Table of Contents, he seems to focus on three distinct aspects of a woman’s education: etiquette and social skills, morality, and traditional educational advancement.  In the aspects of etiquette and morality, Darwin seems to assume the traditional view of women as the purer and more morally virtuous sex; however, in terms of educational subjects, Darwin seems to take a more modernist approach.  He believes that women should not only use education for the attainment of a husband, but for the advancement of the mind as well.  As Darwin writes, combining both the necessity of etiquette and the necessity of cultivating a knowledge of history, geography, and other traditionally male educational subjects, “Education should draw the outline, and teach the use of a pencil; but the exertions of the individual must afterwards introduce the various gradations of shade and colour, must illuminate the landscape and fill it with the beautiful figures of the Graces and the Virtues” (Section I).  In other words, education shapes the mind of women and leads it down a more virtuous path.

 

 

 

Erasmus Darwin: Scientist and Physician

 

It might now be illuminating to look at Darwin’s reasons for writing such a manual, especially as Darwin, a well-known physician in Nottingham, was famous for having written a treatise called Zoonomia, which looks at evolution and the classification of species.  Darwin is commonly known as the grandfather of Charles Darwin.  He was born in 1731, attended Cambridge where he became an Exeter Scholar in 1750, and attained his Bachelor of Medicine degree in 1755.  Darwin’s first wife, Mary Howard, died in 1770.  It is then rumored that he began seeing a woman by the name of Parker, with whom he fathered two children.  Although the two daughters were illegitimate, Darwin treated them as part of the family.  He made sure that they were well-educated and placed in charge of a school for women, a school that he built and founded for them in Derbyshire.  They based their educational instruction on their father’s manual A Plan for the Conduct of Female Education, on the manual, in fact, from which you are reading excerpts.  The daughters of Darwin’s second wife, who he married in 1781, attended the school run by the two “Misses Parker”, or Darwin’s illegitimate daughters.

 

 

 

Darwin, then, seems to have written this manual in response to other educational manuals and novels of the time.  His focus on female education is fostered by his love for his two illegitimate children and his desire to aid their fostering boarding school.  Although Darwin is known for his early evolutionary theories, his manual on A Plan for the Conduct of Female Education in Boarding Schools, while not as ground-breaking as his theories on education, is a wonderful look into the role of women as seen through Victorian society and deserves further contemplation by literary Victorian scholars.  It is only from our study of the past, after all, that we are able to confidently move forward in our understanding of our future, both for female and educational equality.

 

 

 

 

 

                Works Cited

 

 

Bursyn, Joan N. Victorian Education and the Ideal of Womanhood. New Jersey: Croom Helm Ltd, 1980

 

Darwin, Erasmus. A Plan for the Conduct of Female Education in Boarding Schools. New York: Johnson

Reprint Corporation,  1968

Fielding, Sarah. The Governess. Ed. Candace Wood. Canada: Broadview, 2005

Vincent, Leon H. “Erasmus Darwin on Boarding-Schools”. Peabody Journal of Education Jul. 1932: 37-44

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Kathy T.	Eastern MI University

 

 

             

 

 

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